and sanctity of the king. From the kings authority also flowed an extensive
Egyptians did not take to the Sumerian cuneiform alphabet and developed a
far longer than the civilizations that came later, in part because of relative
being more stable and cheerful than Mesopotamia not only in beliefs about gods
economic systems there was a strong tendency toward conservation. Change, when
pharaohs conquered new territories, sometimes pressing up the Nile River into
its centralized government structures and strong bureaucracy. The differences
technological influence from Mesopotamia, but it produced a quite different
social stratification, with a noble, landowning class on top and masses of
womens position seems to have deteriorated after Sumer). Egyptians paid great
embracing a pronounced literary element that Egyptian art lacked.
god, Osiris, was essential as well. Other Egyptian deities included a creation
the power to assure prosperity and control the rituals that assured the flow
the great tombs and pyramids that have made Egypt and some of the pharaohs
Mesopotamia in a number of ways beyond politics and monument building. The
Narmer, had to conquer a number of petty local kings around 3100 B.C. Indeed
Farming had been developed along the Nile by about 5000 B.C., but some
influence, and different prior beliefs, Egypt and Mesopotamia were in contrast
time before 3200 B.C. economic development accelerated, in part because of
by kings, also provided the opportunity for councils and other participatory
hallmark of Egyptian culture. Most Egyptians were peasant farmers, closely
Christian worship of the Virgin Mary; and a host of gods represented by
focus also gave a more optimistic cast to Egyptian culture, for it could be
Egyptian civilization, there were surprisingly few basic changes in styles and
was marked by some striking kings. Early in each dynastic period leading
throughout an entire region, Egyptian civilization from its origins to its
hieroglyphic alphabet instead. Hieroglyphics, though more pictorial than
exhausted by about 1000 B.C. During the 2000-year span in which Egypt
Palestine toward the end of the Old Kingdom period (about 2200 B.C.) were
The pillar of Egyptian culture was not science, however, but religion,
promoted the worship of many gods. It mixed magical ceremonies and beliefs
its successor by a century or two of confusion.
a happy, changeless well-being could be achieved. The care shown in preparing
the Egyptian concern for preparations for the afterlife, which so motivated
last 3000 years. Despite some important disruptions, this was an amazing
internal history, with Egyptian civilization far less marked by disruption
and careful funeral arrangements developed in Chinese civilization, though
attacks from the Middle East by tribes of Asian origin, which brought a period
record of stability even though the greatest vitality of the civilization was
Both civilizations, finally, left an important heritage in their region
rituals suggested a concern with extending organization to the afterlife,
made important advances in medicine, including knowledge of the workings of a
part because of the unifying influence of the course of the Nile River. By the
basis to civilization ultimately gave way to the spread of civilization
Given the importance of royal rule and the belief that pharaohs were
decline was focused on the Nile River and the deserts around it. The Nile
other areas. It was during the New Kingdom that Egyptians first installed
with worship, in a fashion common to early religions almost everywhere. A more
Unlike Mesopotamia and the Middle East, where an original river-valley
Some scholars have seen even larger links between Egypts stable,
complex, and its use was, for the most part, monopolized by the powerful
information on daily life for early civilizations. It is probable, though,
peasants and slaves at the bottom. A powerful priestly group also figured in
gods, it is not surprising that each of the main periods of Egyptian history
were, however, the first people to establish the length of the solar year,
regional kingdom and created a unified state 600 miles long. This state was to
same token, however, Egyptian politics tended to be more authoritarian as well
emphasized in their decorative art. Also striking was the distinction in
it came, was usually brought by outside forces – natural disasters or
Egyptian medical knowledge were gained by the Greeks, and so passed into later
distinct exceptions to Egypts usual self-containment. They were followed by
Both societies traded extensively, but there was a difference in economic
for the rulers and bureaucrats, was designed to assure a satisfactory
North Africa encourages a first effort at comparative analysis. Because of
period that one people, the Hebrews, followed their leader Moses out of Egypt
and adjacent territories. A number of smaller civilization centers were
monuments were triumphs of human coordination, for the Egyptians were not
Middle Eastern and European civilizations.
growing trade wi,h other regions including Mesopotamia. This economic
Stability was a hallmark of Egyptian culture. Given the duration of
20 years to complete and containing 2 million blocks of stone, each weighing 5
launched under the impetus of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and some would produce
new waves of invasion and internal conspiracies and disorganization, including
invasions. Both civilizations demonstrated extraordinary durability in the
tone. Mesopotamia was more productive of technological improvements, because
particularly advanced technologically. They even lacked pulleys or other
afterlife, though Egyptians also believed that favorable judgment by a key
period trade and other contacts with the Middle East and the eastern
of this calendar suggests Egyptian concern about predicting the flooding of
Mesopotamians lacked access to the great stones that Egyptians could import
A project by History World International
variety of medicinal drugs and some contraceptive devices. Elements of
to install a new, one-god religion, replacing the Egyptian pantheon. Many
carefully controlled. A similar connection between strong political structures
about Mesopotamia, even though the latter was in most respects more important
politics, for Egyptian ability to organize masses of laborers followed from
Besides Mesopotamia, a second civilization grew up in northeastern Africa, along the Nile
construction of the great pyramids and other huge public buildings. These
Sumerian cuneiform, were based on simplified pictures of objects abstracted to
Egyptian science focused on mathematics and astronomy, but its
Comparison must also note important similarities, some of them
owed something, finally, to different beliefs, for the Mesopotamians lacked
was the only division of time not based on any natural cycles. The achievement
society and culture. Because its values and its tightly knit political
supervising irrigation and arranging for the great public works that became a
the elite. While specific achievements in science differed, there was a common
city-states. Mesopotamian art focused on less monumental structures, while
reflecting some foreign influence, but his effort was renounced by his
East. One pharaoh, Akhenaton, late in Egyptian history, tried to use his power
displayed its greatest vigor, the society went through three major periods of
to maintain what had been achieved, rather than experiment widely.
of the Nile and the fertility derived from irrigation. Soon, the pharaoh was
Then followed another period of social unrest and invasion, ending in the
organization encouraged monumental building, we know more about Egypt than
characteristic of early civilizations. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia emphasized
spread certain Egyptian influences, notably in monumental architecture, to
formal slavery, subjecting people such as the Jews. It was also in this period
based on a belief that, through politics, death as well as life could be
around 2600 B.C.; the largest pyramid followed about a century later, taking
Social differences were less obvious because it is difficult to obtain
respect to women at least in the upper classes, in part because marriage
Mediterranean, including the island of Crete, gained ground. These contacts
achievements were far less advanced than those of Mesopotamia. The Egyptians
as centralized, for city-states in the Mesopotamian style, though often ruled
monarchy was reestablished during the Middle Kingdom period, during which
skins and allowed the proliferation of elaborate record keeping. On the other
distinctive focus involved the concern with death and preparation for life in
for their monuments. The differences also owed something to different
Egyptian religion included more pronounced deference to goddesses as sources
massive funeral monuments and preservation through mummification. Death
alliances were vital to the preservation and stability of the monarchy. Also,
Egyptian settlements spread southward into what is now the Sudan, setting
received some inspiration from Sumer, but a distinctive pattern soon developed
represent concepts or sounds. As in Mesopotamia the writing system was
hand, Egypt did not generate an epic literary tradition.
that the status of women was greater in Egypt than in Mesopotamia (where
about units of time and measurement. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt changed only
was a virtue. Change did, however, occur in some key areas. Egypt was long
successor Tutankhamen, who restored the old capital city and built a lavish
partial animal figures. Egyptian art focused heavily on the gods, though
emphasis on astronomy and related mathematics, which produced durable findings
and the afterlife but in the colorful and lively pictures the Egyptians
that the pharaoh Akhenaton tried to impose a new monotheistic religion,
than a menacing cause of floods. Egyptian civilization may at the outset have
These cultural differences can be explained partly by geography:
origins for the later African kingdom of Kush.
another world, where in contrast to the Mesopotamians the Egyptians held that
units, without passing through a city-state phase, though the first pharaoh,
fairly isolated, which helped preserve continuity. The invasions of Egypt by
tombs and mummifying bodies, along with elaborate funeral rituals particularly
which was firmly established as the basis of a whole world view. The religion
isolation within each respective region and because of the deliberate effort
beliefs. Egyptian emphasis on stability was reflected in their view of a
tomb to celebrate the return to the traditional gods. After about 1150 B.C.,
slowly by the standards of more modern societies. Details of change have not
Despite some initial inspiration, Egyptian culture separated itself from
to one another in many ways. Egypt emphasized strong central authority, while
River. Egyptian civilization, formed by 3000 B.C., benefited from trade and
bureaucracy, recruited from the landed nobles but specially trained in writing
basics. Egyptian civilization and a fundamental Mesopotamian culture lasted
with quite different specific religious beliefs.
devices to hoist the huge slabs of stone that formed the pyramids.
100,000 men to haul and lift the stone. The first great pyramid was built
and environments. The distinction in overall tone was striking, with Egypt
the Nile and their abilities in astronomical observation. The Egyptians also
of division and chaos, including rival royal dynasties. But the unified
earthly, human scenes were portrayed as well in a characteristic, stylized
monarchy (the Old, the Intermediate, and the New Kingdoms), each divided from
regarded as a god. Much Egyptian art was devoted to demonstrating the power
By 3100 B.C. Narmer, king of southern Egypt, conquered the northern
The development of two great early civilizations in the Middle East and
been preserved, but it is true that having developed successful political and
contacts were more extensive, and the Mesopotamians gave attention to a
strength of the pharaoh. The pharaoh was held to be descended from gods, with
regulated and heavily taxed. Labor requisition by the states allowed
papyrus, which was cheaper to manufacture and use than clay tablets or animal
priestly caste. Egyptians ultimately developed a new material to write on,
Mesopotamian politics shifted more frequently over a substructure of regional
present-day Sudan, once even moving up the Mediterranean coast of the Middle
changeless afterlife, suggesting a conscious attempt to argue that persistence
goddess, similar to other Middle Eastern religious figures later adapted into
Comparisons in politics, culture, economics, and society suggest
acceleration provided the basis for the formation of regional kingdoms. Unlike
centralized politics and its fascination with an orderly death, including
pharaohs commemorated their greatness by building huge pyramids to house
form that lasted without great change for many centuries.
strikes and social protest, brought fairly steady decline. It was around this
and law. Governors were appointed for key regions and were responsible for
Egypt always had fewer problems with political unity than Mesopotamia did, in
Sumer, Egypt moved fairly directly from precivilization to large government
civilizations that varied substantially because of largely separate origins
important innovations of their own by about 1000 B.C.
seen as a source of never- failing bounty to be thankfully received, rather
which they divided into 12 months each with three weeks of ten days. The week
final great kingdom period, the New Kingdom, around 1570 B.C. During this
In all its phases, Egyptian civilization was characterized by the
different geography, different degrees of exposure to outside invasion and
themselves and their retinues after death, commanding work crews of up to
their environment was more difficult to manage than the Nile valley. Trade